age: the age of the learner is controversially linked to second language acquisition success, usually expressed as age of onset, i.e. the time when L2 learning started
analytic learners rely on grammatical sensitivity rather than memory
aptitude: the ability to learn the second language in an academic classroom
cognitive style is a person’s typical ways of thinking, seen as a continuum between field‑dependent (FD) and field-independent styles
even learners rely on both grammatical sensitivity and memory
extrovert and introvert: people’s personalities vary between those who relate to objects outside themselves (extroverts) and those who relate to the contents of their own minds (introverts)
field‑dependent (FD) cognitive style, in which relates to context
field-independent (FI) style, in which thinking is independent of context
instrumental motivation: learning the language for a career goal or other practical reason
integrative motivation: learning the language in order to take part in the culture of its people
intelligence: IQ seems to go with success at school and with success at other school subjects
level of first language: how well you speak you first language is believed to go with how well you learn a second
memory-based learners rely on their memory rather than grammatical sensitivity
motivation: ‘the extent to which the individual works or strives to learn the language because of a desire to do so and the satisfaction experienced in this activity’ (Gardner, 1985).
sex differences: when language teaching is voluntary, it is often seen as a ‘woman’s subject’
social class: motivation associated with class can affect second language learning